Can Neurofeedback Increase Neuroplasticity? Exploring How Brain Training May Shape the Developing Brain

Introduction

The human brain is not a fixed structure. Throughout life, it continuously adapts in response to experiences, learning, environmental demands, and recovery from injury. This ability of the nervous system to reorganise itself is known as neuroplasticity, the process through which the brain modifies its structure and function by strengthening existing connections, forming new pathways, and adapting neural networks (Kleim and Jones, 2008; Zatorre, Fields and Johansen Berg, 2012).

Neurofeedback (NF) is a non-invasive brain training approach that uses real-time feedback from brain activity to help individuals learn to regulate specific patterns of neural functioning. Traditionally, neurofeedback has been viewed as a method for improving brain regulation, attention, emotional control, and self-awareness. However, growing evidence suggests that repeated neurofeedback training may also influence neuroplastic processes by encouraging adaptive changes in brain networks (Sherlin et al., 2011; Sitaram et al., 2017).

Understanding Neuroplasticity: The Brain’s Ability to Change

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to modify its structure, function, and connections in response to internal and external experiences. These changes occur at multiple levels, ranging from microscopic alterations at synapses to large-scale changes in neural networks.

During early development, neuroplasticity is particularly prominent. The developing brain forms an enormous number of neural connections, many of which are later refined through experience-dependent processes. However, neuroplasticity continues throughout adulthood, allowing the brain to adapt to new learning experiences and environmental challenges (Kleim and Jones, 2008).

For example, learning a musical instrument, acquiring a new language, or practising a sport repeatedly activates specific neural pathways. Over time, these pathways become more efficient through strengthening synaptic connections and changes in brain network organisation.

Mechanisms Underlying Neuroplasticity

Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening Neural Connections

One of the most studied mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity is long-term potentiation (LTP). LTP describes a process where repeated activation between neurons strengthens communication between them.

The principle behind LTP is often summarised by Hebb’s theory:

“Neurons that fire together, wire together.”

When two neurons are repeatedly activated together, biochemical changes occur at their synapses, increasing the efficiency of communication. These changes involve increased neurotransmitter release, greater sensitivity of receptors, and structural modifications of synaptic connections (Bliss and Lømo, 1973). LTP provides the biological foundation for learning and memory. Every time an individual practises a skill or repeatedly engages a particular mental process, neural pathways supporting that behaviour become strengthened.

Neurofeedback may interact with similar principles because it involves repeated activation and reinforcement of desired brain states. By repeatedly practising specific patterns of brain activity, neurofeedback may encourage the strengthening of more adaptive neural networks.

Synaptic Pruning: Refining Brain Networks

While neuroplasticity involves creating and strengthening connections, it also involves removing unnecessary ones through a process called synaptic pruning.

During childhood and adolescence, the brain produces an abundance of neural connections. Through experience and environmental interaction, frequently used connections are strengthened, while less efficient connections are gradually eliminated. This process allows the brain to become more specialised and efficient. For example, repeated exposure to language strengthens language-related networks, while unused pathways become reduced.

Although synaptic pruning is most active during development, experience-dependent refinement continues throughout life (Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997). Neurofeedback may support this refinement process by repeatedly reinforcing efficient patterns of brain activation, potentially helping the brain prioritise more adaptive regulatory pathways.

Factors That Influence Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change depends on several biological and environmental factors.

Age

Children generally demonstrate greater neuroplastic potential because their brains are undergoing rapid development. However, adults retain the ability to reorganise neural networks throughout their lives. Research has demonstrated that adult brains remain capable of structural and functional adaptation following learning, cognitive training, and rehabilitation (Draganski et al., 2006). This is particularly important for neurofeedback because it suggests that individuals of different ages may benefit from brain training.

Experience and Repetition

Repeated practice is one of the strongest drivers of neuroplasticity. The brain adapts to what it repeatedly experiences.

For example:

• Repeated physical movement strengthens motor pathways.

• Repeated cognitive tasks strengthen attention networks.

• Repeated emotional regulation practices strengthen self-control circuits.

Neurofeedback follows a similar principle by repeatedly training individuals to produce specific patterns of brain activity.

Injury and Rehabilitation

Following neurological injury, such as stroke, the brain can reorganise itself by recruiting alternative pathways and strengthening remaining connections. This process forms the basis of rehabilitation approaches, where repeated practice encourages the recovery of lost functions (Kleim and Jones, 2008; Zatorre et al., 2012). Neurofeedback is increasingly being investigated as an additional rehabilitation tool because it may help individuals regulate brain activity and promote adaptive network changes (Sitaram et al., 2017; Ros et al., 2010).

How Does Neurofeedback Relate to Neuroplasticity?

Neurofeedback is based on the concept that individuals can learn to regulate aspects of their own brain activity when provided with appropriate feedback.

During a neurofeedback session:

1. Sensors placed on the scalp measure electrical brain activity using EEG.

2. Brainwave patterns are analysed in real time.

3. The individual receives feedback through visual, auditory, or sensory signals.

4. When the brain produces the desired activity pattern, positive feedback is provided.

5. Through repeated practice, the brain learns to reproduce these patterns more efficiently.

This process is based on operant conditioning, a learning mechanism where behaviours followed by rewarding outcomes become more likely to occur again (Skinner, 1953).

In neurofeedback, the “behaviour” being trained is not a physical movement but a pattern of neural activity.

This process may support neuroplasticity because repeated activation of specific neural patterns can strengthen the networks involved in regulation, attention, and emotional control. Research suggests that neurofeedback does not simply teach individuals to temporarily change brain activity; repeated training may lead to longer-lasting changes in functional connectivity and neural efficiency (Sitaram et al., 2017).

The Link Between Neurofeedback and Brain Changes

Neurofeedback may influence neuroplasticity through several pathways.

Strengthening Functional Connectivity

Functional connectivity refers to how different brain regions communicate and work together. Neurofeedback training may enhance communication between networks involved in attention, emotional regulation, and executive functioning. For example, Ros et al. (2010) demonstrated that neurofeedback training targeting sensorimotor rhythms produced changes in functional connectivity, suggesting that brain training can modify communication between neural networks.

Modifying Brain Activity Patterns

EEG studies have shown that neurofeedback can produce measurable changes in brainwave activity. Training protocols such as sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) training, theta/beta training, and alpha-theta training aim to regulate specific patterns associated with attention, relaxation, and emotional states. Repeated reinforcement of these patterns may strengthen the brain’s ability to access more adaptive states over time (Sherlin et al., 2011).

Supporting Experience-Dependent Learning

Neurofeedback may also promote plasticity by engaging the same principles involved in skill learning. Similar to learning a musical instrument or developing a new motor skill, repeated practice strengthens the neural circuits involved in a specific function. By repeatedly practising self-regulation of brain activity, individuals may strengthen networks associated with attention control, emotional regulation, and cognitive flexibility (Kleim and Jones, 2008).

Research Evidence: Neurofeedback and Neuroplastic Changes

Research investigating neurofeedback-related neuroplasticity is still emerging. However, several studies have demonstrated measurable changes in EEG activity, functional connectivity, and brain organisation following neurofeedback training.

Table 1. Research Investigating Neuroplastic Changes Following Neurofeedback Training

Applications of Neurofeedback-Induced Neuroplasticity

The potential ability of neurofeedback to influence brain adaptation has implications across several clinical and performance areas.

ADHD and Learning Difficulties

ADHD is associated with differences in attention networks and regulation of brain activity. Neurofeedback protocols such as theta/beta training and SMR training aim to improve regulation of attention-related brain activity. Meta-analyses have demonstrated improvements in attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity following neurofeedback, suggesting that repeated training may strengthen self-regulation networks involved in executive functioning (Arns et al., 2009).

Emotional Regulation and Stress Management

Neurofeedback may support emotional regulation by influencing brain networks involved in stress responses and self-control. Alpha-theta neurofeedback has commonly been used to promote relaxation and emotional awareness. Research suggests that regulating these brain states may support changes in emotional processing and stress regulation (Hammond, 2005).

Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation

Following stroke or brain injury, neuroplasticity plays a crucial role in recovery. The brain can reorganise activity and recruit alternative pathways to compensate for damaged regions. Neurofeedback has been explored as a rehabilitation tool because it may help individuals regain control over altered brain activity patterns and support adaptive reorganisation (Sitaram et al., 2017).

Cognitive Performance and Healthy Ageing

B ecause neuroplasticity continues throughout adulthood, neurofeedback has also been investigated as a method for supporting cognitive performance and maintaining brain function with ageing. By strengthening attention regulation and cognitive control networks, neurofeedback may contribute to improved mental flexibility and performance, although further research is needed to confirm long term effects (Zatorre et al., 2012; Sitaram et al., 2017).

Limitations and Future Directions

Although evidence suggests that neurofeedback may influence neuroplastic processes, several limitations remain. Firstly, studies vary considerably in terms of protocols used, training duration, participant populations, and outcome measures. This makes it difficult to compare findings across studies. Secondly, measuring neuroplasticity is complex. Changes in EEG activity do not always directly indicate structural brain changes, and neuroimaging studies remain relatively limited compared with behavioural research. Finally, more long-term studies are required to determine whether neurofeedback-induced changes are maintained after training ends and whether they translate into lasting improvements in daily functioning.

Conclusion

The brain’s ability to adapt throughout life provides the foundation for learning, recovery, and personal development. Neurofeedback represents an innovative approach that uses real-time feedback to help individuals gain greater control over their own brain activity.

Current research suggests that neurofeedback can influence brain function by modifying EEG patterns, improving neural regulation, and strengthening communication between brain networks. These functional changes may reflect underlying neuroplastic processes, although direct evidence for structural changes remains an emerging area of research. \

For conditions such as ADHD, learning difficulties, stroke recovery, and emotional regulation difficulties, neurofeedback may provide a valuable tool by encouraging the brain to develop more efficient patterns of activity. Rather than “rewiring” the brain instantly, neurofeedback may be understood as a form of repeated brain training: through consistent practice, feedback, and reinforcement, the brain may gradually adapt towards healthier and more effective patterns of functioning.

As neuroscience continues to advance, future research will help clarify exactly how neurofeedback interacts with neuroplasticity and how this technology can be optimised to support lifelong brain health.

This article was written by Hitashi Sharma

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